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It takes a long time for students of English-as-a-second-language to learn to read well. This is not because they have a reading problem: They can read perfectly well in their own language. The problem is just that they don’t know the meaning of enough English words. In other words, they don’t have a big enough vocabulary.
It’s not easy to build a vocabulary that allows you to read as well, or almost as well, as people who grew up speaking and reading English. It's quite easy to build the basic vocabulary of 1000-2000 words that you need in order to speak English to other people and understand what they’re saying. You’ll probably pick up that many words, without really trying, during the early stages of your study of English. And if that doesn’t happen, you can always sit down with a good vocabulary list and a dictionary and start memorizing.
However, to be able to read English well, you need to know a lot more than 2000 words — about ten times that many, in fact. You won’t learn all these words without trying, even if you spend a lot of time taking English courses and talking to English speakers.
Learning the most basic words in English, or any other language, is easy because these words are used so often. ‘Second-level words’ — words that are not necessary for basic communication, but which are necessary for reading — can only be learned by the hard work of studying. But what sort of studying is most effective and most enjoyable?
One method is to take the direct approach and learn words ‘out of context’ — by studying word lists, doing vocabulary ‘exercises,’ or even by reading through a learners’ dictionary. There are plenty of textbooks around to help you with this job and you may find English courses that concentrate on this sort of vocabulary building.
It’s also possible to take a more ‘natural’ approach and try to build up your vocabulary by reading English books, newspapers, and magazines — looking up words in a dictionary as you go along and taking notes.
Both the direct and the indirect approach can work, but both have serious disadvantages. Most people find studying word lists and reading dictionaries quite boring, and a boring method of studying is likely to be ineffective. In addition, even if you’re not bored, you may find it hard to remember the words you try to learn in this way. It seems that words, and other things, stay in our minds better if we see them for the first time while we’re doing something interesting — like reading an enjoyable story or article.
The disadvantage of the natural approach is that for intermediate learners — ones who are trying to build their vocabulary up to the 20,000-word level — the most readily available texts tend to be far too difficult and, therefore, they are ineffiicent learning tools. Books, even if they are quite easy to understand, tend to be much too long for someone who is reading slowly while using a dictionary and taking notes. Magazine and newspaper articles, on the other hand, almost always contain a lot of language that is unnecessarily difficult because it is idiomatic or metaphorical or because it includes unusual words that are not really needed. This slows down learners and also makes the experience of reading less interesting and therefore less effective.
The best method of vocabulary building is one that combines the advantages of both approaches while avoiding the disadvantages. One way to do this is to learn vocabulary in context, through reading, but with texts that have been specially written for vocabulary building. This makes for natural, efficient, and enjoyable studying.
Finding this kind of reading material can be difficult, unfortunately. The reading passages in ESL texts can be a good source, but they're often few in number and very short. Moreover, the readings in books for beginners' are often quite uninteresting and the ones in books for more advanced students are often about quite difficult 'academic' ideas. To succeed with this method of vocabulary enlargement, you need long and interesting texts. The best sources are probably 'simplified' versions of famous works of English literature written specially for learners. Books of this kind are not used as often in ESL courses now as they were in the past, but, if you're taking an English course, your teacher may able to lend you some, and you should certainly be able to find some in your library. If you go to a library or bookstore to look for useful reading material, you should also look at children's and teenagers' books. They are written for readers who, unlike you, have English as their first language; but like you, they still have to learn more words before they can read 'grown-up' material easily.
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Genital wart signs vary from men and women, this article will explain the different genital wart signs on each person and where they appear. Genital wart signs in men tend to be more outright and seen as their genitals are completely outside the body. Genital wart signs in women seem to be more internal and not as easily seen. On women the most notable wart signs are hard dots on the outer edges of the genitals as well as on the cervix and between the vaginal opening and the anal cavity. These are the genital warts and they may not show up for a long time after contraction occurs.
Men may notice that genital warts seem to show up on the head of the penis and around the anus as well as the scrotum. They may be gray or pink in color and will grow bigger over time. Another sign that a person has contracted genital warts is burning or bleeding in the genital area, especially during sexual intercourse.
Genital warts may seem to appear as small white lumps which many say resemble cauliflower and can be as small as 2 millimeters. Women who have genital wart infections will notice that the warts are small, sometimes too small to see. Genital warts appear in the cervix in some cases where they cannot be seen and there are no real symptoms or signs. Except for genital warts that are internal but may bleed during sex as the warts are being torn open. Doctor’s tests will readily tell a person if she has genital warts inside her cervix.
In most cases genital warts will cause no symptoms and not be noticed unless the outbreak of genital warts is big enough that a person sees or feels them. People really have to reply on the signs that genital warts gives. These are for the most part the bumps and cauliflower shapes as well as where the warts appear and how long ago a person thinks they may have gotten them.
Genital warts are considered a sexually transmitted disease because they are spread during unprotected sex and in some cases protected sex. The only dangerous thing about having genital warts and not doing anything about them is if there is no discomfort, and someone chooses not to pay attention to the bumps they can lead to some cancers.
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Having a baby brings with it many decisions. From the moment that second pink line appears you are a parent. Some parenting decisions can be fun, like what color to paint the nursery. Other decisions require more research and discussion between the mother and her partner including, if the child is a boy, whether or not to circumcise.
The decision to circumcise may be guided by your religious beliefs. Both Jews and Muslims circumcise as part of religious rites. The decision not to circumcise, however, may be one that you never considered. “Aren’t most boys circumcised? Isn’t it cleaner? Why wouldn’t I want my son to look like his father and all the other boys in the locker room?” While these myths are prevalent in the United States and other parts of the Western world, the facts of circumcision tell a significantly different story.
Circumcision of male infants is not a medically necessary procedure; it is plastic surgery for the penis. The practice of circumcision began in ancient Egypt, according to Desmond Morris in his book Babywatching. The ancient Egyptians believed that the snake shedding its skin was undergoing a rebirth and, thus, became immortal. They reasoned that if humans followed suit they, too, would attain immortality. The foreskin was equated to the snakeskin, and the practice of circumcision was begun.
For centuries, the only reason for circumcision was a religious one. Non-faith based circumcision began with the Victorians during the mid-to-late 1800s. They believed that removing the foreskin would reduce the male’s urge to masturbate. From that starting point, circumcision has been deemed by various groups to be more hygienic and credited as a preventative measure for diseases from chlamydia to HIV. In reality, removing the foreskin accomplishes none of these assertions and could result in more serious problems.
The foreskin has several known functions, even in modern times. While some people suggest that its use has gone the way of the appendix, in reality the foreskin aids in the sexual health and enjoyment of men. The foreskin is a protective cover for the penis that needs no special care. At birth, the foreskin is attached to the head of the penis, much like fingernails are attached to the end of your fingers. It will remain attached until the boy is about ten years old. Premature retraction of the foreskin can lead to an increased chance of infection.
Early life functions of the foreskin are to help in the proper development of the penile glans and to protect the glans from feces and urine-based ammonia in diapers. Throughout the man’s life, the foreskin continues to protect the glans from friction and abrasion and keeps it lubricated and moisturized by coating it in a waxy, protective substance. When the man becomes sexually active, the foreskin allows sufficient skin to cover an erection by unfolding and aids in penetration by reducing friction and chafing. The foreskin is highly sensitive and is, in fact, an erogenous tissue rich with erogenous receptors. For his partner, the foreskin contacts and stimulates the female’s G-spot.
There are additional considerations when deciding upon whether your male infant will undergo circumcision. As with any medical procedure, there are complications presented by the choice to circumcise. In March 1999, the American Academy of Pediatrics concluded that any potential medical benefits are not significant, and the AAP no longer recommends circumcision as a routine procedure. Prior to consenting to a circumcision, the mother must sign a consent form outlining the risks of the procedure. These risks include hemorrhage (in about 2% of cases), infection, deformity, scarring, permanent bowing of the penis (chordee), and urinary retention from swelling, among other concerns, including loss of the penis. Though rare, death occurs in approximately 1 of every 5000 circumcisions. Many circumcisions are done without the use of anesthetic, but if anesthesia is used, there are additional complications presented by using anesthetic drugs on an infant.
Despite the American perception, circumcision is not a worldwide practice. Eighty-two percent (82%) of the world's male population is intact. That leaves the 18% of circumcised men in the minority. Even in the U.S. circumcision rates are declining.
Starting around World War II, rates of circumcised boys increased steeply as American births were moved from the home into the hospitals. Rates of U.S. circumcisions reached a plateau during the late 1980s. With the new century, rates of circumcision began a slow decline. In the latest census reports, from 2003, approximately 55% of American newborn boys are circumcised. Some sources believe that American circumcision rates will decrease steadily over the next generation and return to the pre-WWII ratio of approximately 1 of every 4 boys being circumcised.
Whether or not to circumcise is a decision that must be made with concern for immediate and future implications for the male child. As more parents become aware of the choices they have in labor and birth, more parents are also making the decision not to circumcise.
For more information on circumcision, visit www.nocirc.org.
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Rosacea is a chronic, lifelong skin condition that affects (most often) the face. The disease is common: approximately 1 in every 20 Americans has rosacea. Women are affected more often in the early stages (flushing and erythrosis), but more men progress to the advanced stages and rhinophyma is seen almost exclusively in men over 40 years of age.
Rosacea is characterized by various skin disorders and sufferers must contend with skin flushing, erythrosis (reddish or purplish discoloration of the skin), teleangiectasia (permanent enlargement of small blood vessels), papulopustular rosacea (papules are small, red, raised bumps; pustules are similar but they contain pus) or rhinophyma (enlarged, red, swollen nose) and for many people, some of these signs and symptoms are very common; approximately 94% of people with rosacea have flushing. These attacks last from a few minutes to several hours, and the flushing seen in rosacea is intermittent in nature. The disease, to a greater or lesser degree, is progressive, and the more pronounced skin lesions will usually follow sporadic episodes of flushing.
The exact cause of rosacea has not been determined, but here are many theories. Exposure to the sun may be one factor, and exposure to the sun can precipitate acute episodes of flushing. Another possible cause are skin mites, Demodex folliculorum and Demodex brevis. These tiny insects usually live at the base of hair follicles. They are often found on the faces of people with rosacea, and it has been suggested that they may initiate an inflammatory reaction (Inflammation dilates blood vessels and this contributes to the flush, and it may also damage the blood vessels, causing them to be permanently dilated). Infection with the common bacteria, Helicobacter pylori, has also been suggested as a cause. There may also be genetic defects in the vasculature of the skin that causes hem to become easily - and permanently - dilated.
The signs and symptoms of rosacea are not dangerous, but they can be uncomfortable, unsightly, and disfiguring. (However, rosacea can affect the eyes. Approximately 3% to 58% of patients with skin changes will have eye problems and rosacea keratitis can lead to blindness). Yet although there is no cure for rosacea, the disease can be managed. Topical medication, oral medications and laser therapy can all be used to control flushing and to remove some of the skin blemishes, swollen blood vessels and discoloration. However, it would be far more preferable to prevent outbreaks of flushing and the development of erythrosis and papulopustular lesions. It is well known that there are certain factors - sunlight, stress, heat - that can trigger rosacea signs and symptoms, and food has been identified as a trigger.
What foods have been implicated as causes of rosacea signs and symptoms? The list is long, and there is obviously individual variations in susceptibility: high doses of B6 and B12, chocolate, tomatoes, hot beverages, hot sausage, red pepper, black pepper, vinegar, paprika, white pepper, garlic, wine, hard liquor, beer, cheese, yogurt, sour cream, milk, citrus fruits, eggplants, avocadoes, spinach, raisins, figs, bananas, and marinated meat.
Why do these foods exacerbate rosacea? No one knows for sure, and given the fact that the exact cause of rosacea hasn't been clearly determined, that's not surprising. However a look at the pathophysiology of rosacea may provide some clues.
The flush that is so common in people with roseacea is caused by dilation of the small blood vessels of the face. Why this occurs is not certain. The blood vessels may be genetically weak, or they may be damaged by years of exposure to the sun. There may also be an increase in the number of blood vessels, or there may be damage to the walls of the blood vessels. Whatever the cause, the blood vessels (which in the face are very close to the surface) dilate. Many of the foods that trigger flushing attacks most likely do so by increasing body temperature, and in order to lose body heat, blood vessels dilate. Others may cause flushing by stimulating the release of histamine. This is a naturally occurring substance that dilates blood vessels and some foods, e.g. beer and citrus fruits may stimulate the release of histamine.
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Viagra (Sildenafil citrate), which millions of men take for erectile dysfunction (ED), reduces the effects of hormonal stress on the heart by half, according to a study published online in the journal Circulation.
Viagra causes genital blood vessels to expand, which helps in maintaining an erection. Recent research also has pointed to its potential usefulness in treating pulmonary hypertension. Prior to the latest findings by a team of Johns Hopkins researchers, it was thought to have little effect on the heart.
Viagra, or sildenafil, blunts the strengthened heart beat caused by chemically induced stress, according to study senior author and cardiologist David Kass, MD, a professor at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine and its Heart Institute. It thereby lessens both the excess amount of blood and the force used to pump it to the body.
"Sildenafil effectively puts a 'brake' on chemical stimulation of the heart," says Kass.
Prevents and Reverses Effects of High BP
These findings are believed to be the first confirmation in humans that Viagra has a direct effect on the heart. In earlier research, Kass and his team observed a similar effect in mice; Sildenafil blocked the short-term effects of hormonal stress in the heart.
Related studies by the group show that sildenafil also prevents and reverses the long-term effects of chronic high blood pressure on the heart.
Sildenafil reversed the negative effects on heart muscle weakened by heart failure and enlargement -- a condition called hypertrophy -- in mouse experiments Kass and his team carried out earlier this year. They reported their results in the journal Nature Medicine.
"But we had no firm evidence as to whether or how this therapy might work in the human heart," says Kass. "Our latest research provides firm evidence this drug does indeed have an important impact on the heart."
Increased Heartbeat Was Slowed
Thirty-five healthy men and women, with an average age of 30 and no previous signs of coronary artery disease, participated in the six-month Johns Hopkins study. Within a three-hour timeframe, each participant received two separate injections of dobutamine (5 micrograms per kilogram for five minutes), a synthetic, adrenaline-like chemical that increases heart rate and pumping strength.
Between injections, study participants were assigned randomly to a group that was treated with sildenafil (100 milligrams taken orally) or to a group given a sugar pill placebo. All participants then were given the second dobutamine injection to see what effects sildenafil or placebo had on the heart.
Measurements of heart function were made before and after each injection. These included blood pressure readings, electrocardiograms and echocardiograms. Blood samples confirmed relatively equal levels of sildenafil and other enzymes.
Each dobutamine injection stimulated heart function, increasing heart rate and the force of each heartbeat used to pump blood throughout the body, results showed.
"This stimulation is similar to the way the nervous system normally increases heart function when triggered by emotional or exercise stress, or in diseases such as heart failure," notes Kass.
After the first injection of dobutamine, the force of heart contraction increased by 150 percent in both groups. In the placebo group, this increase repeated itself after the second injection. However, in the group treated with sildenafil, the increased heartbeat was slowed by 50 percent, resulting in a smaller increase in blood flow and blood pressure generated by the heart in response to chemical stimulation.
Between injections, heart function was not altered in the sildenafil group, demonstrating the absence of adverse side effects on the resting human heart.
Stops PDE5A Action
"Knowing more about the effects of sildenafil on heart function will allow for safer evaluation of its use as a treatment for heart problems," says Kass.
"Our results set the stage for further studies of sildenafil's immediate and long-term effects on the heart and its ability to modify other neurohormonal and stress stimuli, including adrenaline and hypertension," he adds.
While the precise biological actions of sildenafil in the heart are not fully understood, the drug is known to work by stopping the action of an enzyme, called phosphodiesterase 5 (PDE5A), Kass explains. This enzyme is involved in the breakdown of a key molecule, cyclic GMP, which helps control stresses and limit overgrowth in the heart.
PDE5A is also the biological pathway that sildenafil blocks in the penis to prevent the relaxation of blood vessels and thus maintain erections.
Copyright 2005 Daily News Central
